A 56% increase in lithium production, incoming foreign investments from French, Chinese and South Korean mining giants, and a vision to produce up to 80,000 tonnes of lithium carbonate by late 2024. These are just some of the goals outlined by the Argentinian government for the booming lithium industry. The Buenos Aires Times suggests that despite global lithium prices dropping, the Argentinian lithium industry expects little interference in meeting its production and export goals.
Meanwhile, long-sustained efforts to uphold the delicate balance of the ecosystem face existential threats from rampant mining activities and the depletion of natural resources, causing monumental disruption to indigenous ways of life. Unregulated lithium extraction stands at the threshold of erasing centuries' worth of cultural heritage, for technological progress to combat the environmental catastrophes created by the industrialised society.
Argentina has long been the hub of lithium exports, resting on the tip of the ‘lithium triangle’ in South America. Sharing this invaluable reserve with Bolivia and Chile, a significant portion of the world’s lithium reserves can be found in this region.
With Argentina gaining the status of the fourth largest exporter of lithium in the world, the growing ramifications of the industry practices on the Indigenous population living in the region have increasingly threatened their livelihoods and survival. The capitalising of Indigenous residents for their resources and labour only scratches the surface of the mistreatment and exploitation that has gained international attention. The extensive dependence of lithium mining on the lagoons and surrounding water bodies has resulted in the water no longer being suitable for drinking. Residents have further observed a steady decline in the highly biodiverse region.
In Argentina, as economic growth takes the front seat in matters of domestic and foreign policy, Indigenous Argentinians face heightened risks of forced evictions and unemployment. From the protection of their homeland and climate-related concerns, they have further called for equal status and social justice. As the export of lithium becomes a key economic asset to the Argentinian government, increased resistance from communities across the lithium triangle and the rest of Argentina has given rise to a larger indigenous movement for equal rights and sustainable development.
Lithium Mining
Popularly referred to as “white gold,” lithium is a chemical element primarily used in medicines, batteries, soft drinks, and lubricants. Mining for lithium has been a longstanding practice in various parts of Latin America, dating back to the 1980s, when Chilean authorities first mentioned access to lithium reserves. Over the last few years, lithium has become increasingly popular for storage and solar batteries, as countries across the world transition to greener and reusable forms of energy for various industries, including the automobile industry with the rise of electric vehicles (EVs).
Though high in demand, there are challenges, beginning with the process of extracting lithium to preparing it for export and eventually its industrial usage. To extract the chemical element, a salty liquid found either on or under the earth's surface is pumped and stored in large pools. As the water evaporates, lithium, salt, and other elements are left behind.
Industrial-scale use of accessible water sources, destruction of land, and the large-scale evaporation process have led to detrimental impacts on the surrounding landscape and environment. These concerns are at the heart of the protest, as Indigenous leaders argue that lithium extraction threatens both the environment and their way of life. A similar process is followed across the lithium triangle to continuously produce adequate amounts of exports.
More traditional methods of lithium mining, however, also exist. In Australia for instance, various corporations blast a lithium-rich substance known as ‘spodumene’ across open pits or patches of land. Once solidified, Australia sends the rocks to China, where lithium extraction takes place.
Regardless of the method used, the primary concern remains the ethical and rightful use of land and labour. For the Indigenous communities residing within the lithium triangle, these concerns are amplified with increasing emphasis on reaching production and export goals.
Argentina has displayed a notable pattern of opting for preferential policies surrounding its lithium industry, primarily in the form of including tax cuts to bolster foreign investments. Today, countries such as China maintain a good relationship with Argentina, preserving access to lithium reserves, and upholding a partnership in South America. Not only has this played a significant role in boosting the lithium mining industry within the lithium triangle, but has further contributed to Argentina’s growing reputation as a major lithium exporter, nudging it towards the top three in the world.
While mining companies like those in neighbouring Salta province argue they are working towards more sustainable practices, such as using solar energy and optimising water usage, Indigenous leaders like Néstor Jérez of the Ocloya people remain unconvinced. Jérez asserts, while speaking with the BBC, that the preservation of the land and the environmental health of future generations outweigh the economic benefits.
The Indigenous populations within mining hotspots have emphasised the need for environmental health primarily focused on preserving the sanctity of the region's biodiversity and water accessibility.
The lithium triangle is identified as one of the driest regions on the planet, making the lithium mining process all the more intrusive. Having to drill large holes, use excessive amounts of water, and an additional array of chemicals to purify a single batch has resulted in one production cycle taking between 12–18 months. Local communities fear this will exacerbate water scarcity and pollution across their land.
Previously, Minera Exar, a Canadian-Chilean company, signed a deal with six Indigenous communities residing in the Atacama desert, aiming for sales worth US$250 million, according to the Harvard International Review in 2009. Such deals have only increased over the years as Argentina now makes an estimated US$809 million through its lithium exports as of 2023, a 20% increase from 2022.
Minera Exar had promised each of the six communities a compensation between US$6,000 and US$9,000; however, those are yet to be received. Residents have made numerous pleas over the years to receive at least a share of the profits, for the complete takeover of land that they face.
The struggle continues as taxation and public building costs remain the onus of locals. Sewage systems and access to adequate resources for all community members were only some of the responsibilities handed over to the communities, leaving them to fend for themselves, while larger corporations enjoyed the profits and rent-free use of indigenous land.
The mining sector in Argentina is governed by the Mining Investment Law of 1993, offering 30-year fiscal stability for tax and customs duties. This includes a 0% tax on raw materials required for mining. Further advantages spread across various stages of the mining project development only further incentivise large corporations to invest in the lithium mining industry.
Argentina is one of the only countries in the world that accepts private ownership, exploration, production, and development of lithium mining. With no restrictions on foreign investments in mining, Argentina currently has over 20 bilateral treaties safeguarding them from double taxation—also aimed at incentivising more foreign investments.
The Indigenous Communities of Argentina
Owing to the increased presence of lithium industries, government pressures, and lack of recognition or status within the larger Argentinian society, Indigenous communities have risen to voice their concerns and mobilise in protest of the surge in lithium mining. Between 3–5% of the population identifies as Indigenous or of Indigenous origin, as of 2022.
Argentina comprises an estimated 35 recognised Indigenous groups, according to the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA), located majorly across rural areas. Jujuy, a province located in the heart of the lithium triangle in northern Argentina, has been at the core of ongoing efforts to curb lithium mining and the indigenous activist movement, aimed to protect the highly biodiverse land they reside on.
The region, for instance, is home to three critically endangered species of flamingos. Populations of these species saw dramatic fluctuations every year, as mining activities compromised groundwater levels. A study conducted by the Royal Society indicated an estimated 10% decline in the James’ and Andean flamingo populations over the last eleven years within the lithium triangle, as the availability of food, water, and breeding grounds was compromised. Indigenous populations have been especially attuned to flamingo well-being for their crucial role as an indicator of environmental health, specifically with water salinity, and the availability of food sources.
For decades on end, indigenous or tribal ways of life have been termed as rural or backward. Seldom recognised is the fact that Indigenous knowledge systems around the world have laid the foundation for successive generations. Whether through seasonal eating habits, optimising nature’s resources, or simply leading balanced lifestyles for optimum physical and mental health, Indigenous groups across the world serve as the epitome of holistic and sustainable development.
Over 400 Indigenous groups inhabit the region, most of whom do not possess any legal status in Argentina, and for centuries have lived in harmony with Pachamama, or Mother Earth. However, the rise of lithium mining has ignited tensions, as the resource-rich land becomes a focal point for the government and corporations.
With lithium exports becoming a key feature of the Argentinian economy, Gerardo Morales, the governor of Jujuy, supported a constitutional reform in June 2023 that threatened the eviction of Indigenous people from these lands. Many of them, like Ms Machaca, a spokesperson for the residents of Jujuy, inherited her land through verbal agreements from her grandfather, leaving them without legal documentation to protect their claims, as shared with the BBC. The reform also restricts the right to protest, though Indigenous groups have continued their resistance by blocking roads to lithium mining sites.
The protests, which include teenagers like Noelia Judith Kayo, whose grandfather marched for land rights in 1946, have drawn international attention. According to Left Voice, a socialist magazine focused on uncovering capitalist exploitations around the world, a police crackdown in June 2023 injured an estimated 170, while more than 50 individuals were arrested. Despite the intense crackdown on protesters, however, the roadblocks continued, and cultural events, such as traditional music performances and ceremonies honouring Pachamama, helped maintain solidarity among the demonstrators.
The struggle, they say, is not just about ownership of the land, but about safeguarding Pachamama—the source of life—and ensuring a future that respects their traditions and the delicate balance of nature.
Indigenous Struggles for Recognition
The recognition of Indigenous communities internationally was first observed at the United Nations in 1949 at the General Assembly, where the Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities welcomed speeches by Indigenous Americans. The goal of this special address in the post-World War II period was to optimise the teachings and resources of the Indigenous communities to the advantage of the world through material and cultural developments.
Following the disapproval of the United States, the inquiry as well as the Sub-Commission was dissolved. However, a wave of studies and demands for recognition of Indigenous populations had emerged across South America, owing to the spread of the Cold War and the required development of South American states at the time. The emergence proved to be more strategic for generating support for the warring US and Soviet Union, rather than a conscious effort to better indigenous wellbeing.
By 1957, the International Labour Organisation had adopted the Convention ‘Indigenous and Tribal Populations’ recognising that the social, cultural, and economic status of the Indigenous groups severely undermined and hindered their access to their fundamental rights and advantages. While the Convention itself faced widespread criticism at the time, including being termed as “paternalistic,” it remains one of the only binding documents outlining Indigenous rights.
1971 marked a new dawn for Indigenous recognition as the revival of the Sub-commission, under the leadership of Mexican Ambassador José R Martínes Cobo, brought with it new recognition for Indigenous rights. Having conducted a study on the ‘Discrimination Against Indigenous Populations,’ he concluded that most groups do not gain access to basic human rights, and for those that do have access, it is often inadequate. The ambassador emphasised the recognition of Indigenous self-determination, specifically claiming rights over their territories and lands that were taken away.
Particularly prevalent for the Argentinian indigenous protest movement was the Convention’s recognition of the customary laws about land use and inheritance by national governments. Argentina’s ruling party in 2006, through the National Congress, passed a law ordering the suspension of all evictions of Indigenous communities. Aiming to map out ownership of ancestral lands through a national survey, the Argentinian Constitution, aligning with international human rights laws, recognised the rights of Indigenous people over their ancestral land.
An incident reported in the Tilcara region by The Guardian spotlighted the forceful eviction and subsequent demolition of a woman’s house sparking headlines and local uprisings. As police threatened her with arbitrary arrest and the loss of the custody of her three children, she was forced to sign a document in agreement with her eviction. Three days later, with no warning, bulldozers ran over her house, stripping her of any capital reserves she may have possessed. This became one of the numerous other cases of the violation of Indigenous (property) rights.
Despite the legislature supporting the traditional practice of verbal inheritance and land ownership, violence against and evictions of the Argentinian Indigenous groups has continued. The lithium triangle today is only an addition to the growing tensions between the people and the authorities.
Anahi Jorge, a 23-year-old mine worker, addressed some of the concerns festering among the community in an interview with AFP News stating “The water issue is harmful to us, but it [is] good for the people who are employed.” Jorge specifically referred to the increased incomes earned by various Argentine corporation employees, who reportedly earn four times the salary of a local government employee as suggested by DW News.
Enveloping the people of Jujuy and various other villages across the lithium triangle in a catch-22 dilemma—a balance between economic stability and harmony with nature remains paramount for the Indigenous protest movement. According to the Harvard International Review, an average lithium mine worker earns an estimated US$1,000 per year, compromising quality of life for capitalist profit maximisation.
Various human rights advocates, including Argentina’s former Human Rights Secretary Horacio Pietragalla, expressed their support for the Indigenous protest movement by filing a petition in the Supreme Court. Demanding an end to the crackdowns on Indigenous groups, the residents from within the lithium triangle are further advocating for more Indigenous representation in government, citing the need for Indigenous interests to be voiced, as a bare minimum to gain some state recognition.
According to Amnesty International, individuals have been criminalised for joining the protests and are now afraid to participate in future demonstrations. Many also fear being placed on a blacklist by local authorities. Mariana Fontoura Marques, a researcher at Amnesty International, stated that local communities experienced a total absence of rights to protect themselves.
From forced evictions to physical and sexual assault on Indigenous and Indigenous rights protestors, the police brutality that unfolded was unprecedented and extreme, as reported by The Guardian. Instances of people permanently losing their vision after they were hit with rubber bullets or fired on with teargas emerged. Women across Jujuy also reported that they were sexually assaulted by police officers, simply for attending and participating in ongoing protests.
In response, the local authorities in Jujuy rejected claims of police repression, while former governor Gerardo Morales described the June 2023 reforms as "progressive."
The Compromise
The capital of the Jujuy province, Susques, has been the backbone of the lithium mining industry in Argentina. For the Indigenous, however, it is also the core of their ongoing compromise initiated by large corporations and industrialists. Numerous young women across Jujuy moved to Susques in search of work, before the establishment of the lithium production plant. Most only received employment as domestic servants.
The production plant brought with it an expansion of job opportunities enabling many across the province to earn a decent living while working in the mines. Today over 60% of Jujuy’s estimated 4,000 residents work in the lithium production sector, as shared by community representative Benjamin Vazquez with DW News. Now able to sustain their lives, Indigenous communities, especially the youth, have found it a struggle to strike a balance between the advantages and disadvantages of the industry in their surrounding. A production plant worker stated “It’s very difficult to refuse,” citing the lithium as a reason for both their livelihood and threat to existence.
A Jujuy native, Bautista Sarapura, stated in an interview with DW News, “Before, you could find water at 2 or 3 metres, now [you have to dig] deeper and deeper” suggesting a corrosion of local water sources that residing communities depend on. Mining projects, as examined by various environmental organisations, are said to require up to 2 million litres of salt water, to produce one ton of lithium. The subsequent purification process necessitates 140,000 litres of water alone.
Not only has this exacerbated the environmental degradation in the region by contaminating its water, but has left barely any water for the daily use of locals. Posing serious concern for the sustenance of their community, many activists residing in the salt flats have participated in the protests, putting up signs saying “No to mega-mining. Let’s take care of natural resources.”
Climate Concerns
Jujuy’s residents are leading protests against lithium mining, raising alarms about its environmental impact. In August 2023, Indigenous communities marched over 1,800 kilometres to Buenos Aires in the “Malón de la Paz” (Raid for Peace), calling for constitutional reform to be revoked. Their demands extended beyond land rights, extending to the protection of water resources and the preservation of their cultural and environmental heritage.
"Mining is harming biodiversity and aggravating the climate crisis," said 19-year-old Milagros Lamas, one of the voices of the movement, to the BBC. The protesters argue that lithium mining, which requires vast amounts of water and disrupts delicate ecosystems, is contributing to the destruction of their lands and natural resources. Local communities fear the depletion of water supplies and pollution from chemical processes used to extract lithium, a critical element found beneath northern Argentina’s salt flats.
Despite the protests, advocates for lithium mining, such as Marie-Pierre Lucesoli, argue that the mineral plays a crucial role in combating climate change. Lithium is essential for producing batteries for electric vehicles, which are seen as key to reducing global reliance on petrol and diesel. Lucesoli contends that lithium mining is part of the "energy transformation to decarbonize the world," as she explained to the BBC.
However, Lucesoli acknowledges that the business sector must improve communication with local communities to increase awareness about the potential benefits of lithium. However, this has done little to assuage concerns among the Indigenous groups, who are determined to protect their land and water for future generations.
Children and teenagers have also joined the protests, asserting their right to a healthy environment. For them, the fight is about more than just land—it is a battle to safeguard the climate, biodiversity, and the future of humanity. "This is not just for us: it's for future generations and the entire humanity's well-being," the protesters insisted when interacting with the BBC, as they continued to resist lithium mining projects across the region.
The Future of Lithium in Argentina
As political and economic projects become the forefront of Argentina’s policies, lithium mining spearheads the race to economic growth. However, Indigenous populations across the country continue to demand justice—justice for their violated rights, for their unrecognised traditions, and justice for their maligned ways of life.
With climate and biodiversity concerns becoming one of the central tenets of the protest movement, harmony with the earth and equal accreditation for indigenous practices and knowledge systems are brought under the spotlight. The world today has undoubtedly benefited from increasing economic ambition, but this remains an unyielding effort if the roots that hold these endeavours together are severed.
Indigenous communities across the world have emerged as the benchmark for the harmonious balance the corporatised and industrialised work seeks to achieve today. By respecting the natural resources at their disposal, and pursuing a cyclical and seasonal approach to their daily lives, they have not only achieved economic and environmental sustainability but have also attained the socio-political stability countries seldom attain.
Social justice for the Indigenous people, appropriate compensation for their threatened and in some cases lost livelihoods, and appropriate economic restrictions and regulations are only the starting points to preserving the integrity and vitality of Jujuy, and Indigenous populations around the world.
Edited By Thenthamizh SS and Ananya Karthikeyan
Veda (she/her) is the Director of News at Political Pandora. She is a student of Humanities and Social Science.
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